The learner and the learning context
An important issue in relation to the benefits of focused instruction is whether al1 learners can
equally benefit from it. Individual factors such as learner's age and cognitive characteristics, as
well as proficiency level can be seen to play a big role. As for age, while adult learners will be
able to draw on their cognitive resources to engage in explicit learning, young learners are less
likely to benefit from focus on form instruction that places too high cognitive demands on them.
Another important individual difference is the learner's (verbal) analytical abilities, which have
been found to be a good predictor of proficiency in both formal and informal settings (Harley
& Hart, 1997; see also DeKeyser, 2003). Research has pointed out that learners with higher
levels of grammatical sensitivity (a component of language analytic ability) find it easier to
notice formal details of the L2 during second language acquisition (Ranta, 1998). Hence, Sawyer
and Ranta (2001) suggest that an important function of form-focused instruction may be to
compensate for learners' deficiencies in certain components of language aptitude, for example.
grammatical sensitivity.
Learners' proficiency level is also an important factor to take into consideration when
plaming focused instruction. Because research seems to show that beginning learners find it
difficult to focus on meaning and form at once (Celce-Murcia, 1991 ; Van Patten, 1990), the latter
may need to be applied with caution in the case of learners who have to struggle with basic
comprehension problems.
A not less important issue is the learning context. As Fotos (2002) argues, implicit
approaches to grammar instruction may be less appropriate in foreign language settings, where
class-time is limited and there is not enough externa1 communicative input to support continued
awareness, than in second language settings with abundant communicative input inside and
outside the classroom. In such contexts a combination of implicit and explicit approaches may
be more adequate. For example, this author (2002) proposes to incorporate implicit approaches
in lessons in which explicit instruction precedes communicative task performance. The
explanation aims at activating previously developed knowledge (Ausubel, Novak, & Hanesian,
1978) and facilitating the establishment of form-meaning relationships. Provision of subsequent
communicative input containing the target structure is recommended to facilitate continued
awareness of its use in context.
It is to be noted, however, that purely communicative methodology has had only
marginal impact on foreign language teaching settings, where the dominant pedagogy continues
to involve a structural syllabus or, even, grammar translation (Skehan, 1998). In such contexts,
the recent emphasis on focus on form may mislead teachers into believing that their explicit
instructional practices and analytic syllabuses is al1 learners require. Hence, the need to
emphasize the necessity to incorporate form-focused activities in communicative contexts in the
foreign language class.
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